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Finally, salamanders are easily raised in the laboratory, with no serious problems of care. No anaesthetics are necessary and they are abundant in the spring of the year. We started with numerous experiments on the developing embryos of salamanders, because an analysis of the embryology of the nervous system promised data to support our Field Theory. In the first place, as the embryo is an aquatic animal, i t was necessary to determine whether or not there were any significant electro-metrics of the embryo.

Potential measurements were made, therefore, in the embryo from a point in the cephalic region, and another in the caudal region. These were studied over periods of time and showed characteristic changes with the growth and differentiating of the embryo itself. It soon became clear that there is an electro-metric correlate of the longitudinal axis of the salamander nervous system.

There is also a bilateral symmetry between the righ t side and the left side of the axis, as might be expected from everything else we know about the developing organism. It is well known, of course, that the salamander egg at this stage is a sphere, showing little or no differentiation grossly except the difference between the animal and vegital pole. But there is no differentiation, so far as can be observed, in the quadrants of the sphere.

It was found from these measurements that there was one point on the equator which showed a marked increase in the voltage drop between the reference electrode and the point. The latter was marked with a spot of Nile blue sulphate so that it could be followed through the subsequent period of development. It was found-as our theory had suggested-that the point on the equator which marked the greatest voltage drop from the animal pole marked the head end of the developing salamander.

A longitudinal axis of the developing nervous system was then established in the unfertilized egg. This maintained itself throughout the succeeding growth period and, surprisingly enough, there was no significan t change in the electro-metrics of the unfertilized egg after fertilization.

This is astonishing, because fertilization is supposed to be a critical point in development. This suggests, at once, that the design of the living embryo is an electro-metric correlate which can be recorded objectively during the process of growth and development and turns out to be one of the constant factors during this whole process of development. All these measurements were made using silver-silver chloride electrodes immersed in micropipettes and connected to the high input impedance of a suitable amplifier with a galvanometer or a recording galvanometer in the output.

At the suggestion of one of my early colleagues, Dr. Leslie F. This is truly extraordinary, for it makes it clear that the field properties of the embryo radiate through the medium of the liquid environment in w hich the embryo lives. Now this could occur only if the source of these potential gradients was the result of field activity. As a matter of fact, if one s tops to think about it, if one puts a battery of any kind in a conducting medium, the battery very soon is exhausted, since the external medium acts as a low resistance shunt across the positive and negative poles of the battery.

But in the embryo, although we have the same kind of voltage gradient as is present in the ba ttery-at least so far as the measurable characteristics are concerned-nevertheless the field properties of the embryo do not short out in the liquid. Moreover, it was clear that the field axis was a constant to the whole procedure and resulted in a very interesting sine wave output from the embryo i tself.

This meant, too, that the micropipette electrodes were recording voltage gradients well away from the embryo i tself. As a control, an inert glass rod was revolved under the same experimental conditions and produced a straight line on the recording galvanometer. To make a further check, a 'robot' was made of a piece of copper rod with a blob of solder a t one end.

Such a rod, under normal conditions, produces a voltage gradient, because of the bi-metallic components. This also was revolved in the same way as the embryo and produced the same kind of sine wave, the only difference being that, in time, the bi-metallic chemical voltage gradient decreased.

Similar experiments were made with a full-grown salamander floated in a circular dish of salt solution in which, at opposite ends of a diameter, were immersed the electrodes, connected to a recording galvanometer.

The dish was then slowly rotated and, since the salamander possessed a field with a positive and negative pole, it acted like the armature of an electrical generator. In consequence, as i t rotated between the electrodes, it set u p a tiny alternating cnrrent of very low frequency, which was recorded as a true sine wave. One day, perhaps, some enterprising experimenter will float a man or a woman in a rotating swimming-pool to demonstrate that there really is such a thing as a 'human dynamo'!

But the author's la boratory offered neither space nor facilities for such an experiment. This experiment was designed to explore the field properties of a small part of a living system. A preliminary report of such a study is here presented.

The existence of an electro-static field has been demonstrated. By an ingenious technique developed by Dr. It was possible to study the transmission of a single stimulus throughout the substance of the segment of the nerve under study, not only when the electrcdes were in direct contact, but also when they were at a measurable distance outside the nerve. The evidence resulting from these experiments gives further enlightenment as to the nature of the field irr living systems.

Measurement of such fields indicates that forces exist not only in b u t also otltside of t h e nerv e dmill g exci tation. All of them are the direct consequences of field properties of living systems. None of this implies that the field is conceived of as some mysterious property of living things.

It is not another name for elan vital or entelechy. In non-living ma tter, fields are definable in terms of forces between charges. In living systems, therefore, since the entities of which they are composed are the same entities as are to be found in non-living matter, the same forces between the units may be presumed.

It should be noted tha t the electro-static fields do not exist in the absence of charges nor charges in the absence of fields. They are both fundamental properties of matter.

In living organisms it can be said that chemical components, wherever they possess charges, cannot exist without fields nor can fields be found except in the presence of charges. It is equally dear that the business of living is not a static affair; it is a moving, dynamic process.

For this energy is required and it is the chemistry of biological systems which provides i t. But energy is a scalar property and is. In general, it is the second law of thermodynamics which directs the flow in such a manner as to increase the entropy of the system. It seems from our observations that this direction is also characterized by electrical gradients, much as though the second law was augmented by electrical signposts. Such constancy of directional control, in fact, is one of the s t riking attributes of the developing organism.

The experiments reported by us in collaboration with Dr. Mauro provide additional evidence of the validity of the original assumption. These experiments were carried out through the courtesy of the late Dr. A series of measurements of the voltage gradients of definitive stages in the life cycle of an Obelia hybrid was carried out.

These trace a rising curve of graded intensity parallel with the growth from the anlagen to the complete functioning animal. With the attainment of senility and its consequent catabolic dissolution the direction of the voltage gradient is reversed. Fluctuations in voltage gradien t parallel the fluctuations in developmental growth, as it progresses from an undifferentiated to the differentiated state.

The conclusion was made that the growth and life cycle of an Obelia is characterized by definitive and progressive changes in voltage gradient correla ted with the morphogenesis of the animal. There are a number of implications cf this study wh i ch deserve fu r th er examination.

In the extremely short life-cycle of Obelia it is possible to cover the entire life span of the living organ ism in a rela tively short time. The electro-metric correlates of this regression were clearly evident.

During the first third of the animal's life, voltage gradients increase fairly steadily. During the middle third, voltage gradients tend to level off and form a plateau. The last third of an animal's life shows evidence of regression with a consequent falling off of voltage gradients until death itself ensues. All of these experiments show a relationship between the growth and development of a living system and its electro-metric correlates.

One of the important consequences of the field theory, however, is that the electro-metric characteristics of the system in some way control the pattern of organization or, if you like, the design of the system. In this field, Dr. The cucurbits all have a characteristic building block, and yet the shape of the gourd made with these building blocks differs. Just as one can build a house with bricks of a uniform size and shape, the design of the whole results in quite different external characteristics.

Using cucurbit fruits, provided by Dr. Sinnott, electro-metrics were made. In this study, potential differences were measured along the axial and the equitorial diameters of young ovaries a nd developing fruits of three races of wcurbita pe:po, differing markedly in shape and designated as elongated, round , and flat. As the fruit grow larger, the potential gradients tcnd in all races to decrease, but the ratios between the gradients and the true dimensions tend to increase in the elongate, to decrease in the flat, and to be unchanged in the round race.

To explain these various facts, it is tempting to suggest that the pattern of potential differences here described may have some causal relation to the morphological pattern which appears as the fruit develops. The data offers for the consideration of students of plant morphogenesis a series of new facts from a field which, if well cultivated, may become very fruitful.

The association with Professor Sinnott was extraordinarily fruitful. Two of these were furthered. The suggestion was made that electro-metric studies be made of a single seed. The choice was necessitated largely by practical considerations and fell on corn kernels-sweet corn kernels. These seeds had been under study for some time.

The strains differ considerably in genetic constitution and in the degree of hybrid vigour shown in crosses between them. Four inbred strains were studied and three hybrids. One of these was a mid-season yellow sweet corn, an inbred of unknown origin. Another was a semi-dwarf mutant of P; it is normal in appearance but much reduced in size.

It has been shown by Singleton that they differ by only one gene. The three hybrids show a gradation of hybrid v;gour. If the electrical patterns have any significance, the electrical correlates of these differences should be manifest. A statistical analysis shows that the mean potential measured between the attached end of the corn kernel and its opposite pole gave h ighly significant results.

Aside from the generally different mean, however, the most striking finding was a very great difference between the mean of the single gene mutant and the parent s tock. It is remarkable that the change of a single gEne in the parent s tock should produce such profound and significant change in the over-all pattern of the voltage difference.

If further studies should confirm this conclusion, it seems very probable that one of the ways the chromosomes impart design to protoplasm is through the medium of an electro-dynamic field. Under the couditions of the experiment there appeared to be, first of all, an immediate potential, which was called the prime potential. The prime potentials apparently show a high correlation wi th the seeds' viability, but have no particular reference to plant growth.

Further, these poten tial differences hetween seeds have been highly correlated with the growth of progeny for one generation removed. For these reasons the potentiometer may prove to be a useful tool for the plant breeder. These findings more i mportant, the genetic the environment in which it 6 As a contribution to this problem, a study was made of the reactions to a stimulus of the sensitive plant, Mimosa.

It is well known, of course, tha t a branch will collapse when touched. It is well known, too, that in all biological systems there exists a multiplicity of phase boundaries. The existence of a potential difference across the phase boundaries is generally accepted. It is commonly held tha t the membrane potential a t a phase boundary is a consequence of a difference in concentrations of electrolytes on opposite sides of the boundary.

In the non-living system this potential approaches zero as ionic equilibrium is reached. It has been more or less logically concluded, therefore, that the existence and variation of potential difference can be expla ined by the known initial differences in concentrations with consequent movement of ions across the boundary. The living system , on the other hand, differs somewha t from the physical chemical situation in that the potential differences, instead of approaching zero with time, are maintained at a n astonishingly stable level.

Moreover, it is not a t all impossible tha t one of the mechanisms regulating and controlling chemical activity is resident in the potential difference. When the biological system is at rest, the potentials could be recorded as DC potentials, but when protoplasm is thrown into any kind of activity, such as neural transmission, muscle contraction and similar events, the first sign of tha t activity would lie in the sudden withdrawal from the reservoir of electrical energy.

In other words, a drop in potential differences. Then, mobilization of chemical properties might be expected to re-establish the original level of the potential difference. Through studies of both DC and AC phenomena in the living system, it should be possible, therefore, to obtain straightforward records of fundamental biological activity. In plants, which presumably are much simpler, the problem can be attacked more readily.

For this reason, therefore, the studies of the electrical response associated with a stimulus to the sensitive plant, Mimosa, were made. This peak arises to sixty or seventy m illivolts and then subsides to the original voltage gradient and, though not always, often crosses it. This record is very similar to that of the spike in the neural action current. In younger, more active plants, the duration of the spike is apparently shorter than in the older ones.

The whole wave form of this stimulus response is strikingly like the wave form of a single axone response in the vertebrate nervous system. Attempts were made to relate this to the anatomy of Mimosa, as it is well known in animals that the rate of conductivity of a nervous impulse is a function of the diameter of the axone. In Mimosa there are continuous fluid-conta ining channels which , conceivably, m ight be likened to a nerve process.

These channels, however, are buried heneath the surface since they are covered by many layers of cells. The electrodes, of course, are in contact with the surface cells, n o t with the conducting channels.

The whole system, however, i s obviously conductive of electricity and it m ay he that the records obtained are derived from the longitudinal channels. In Mimosa, the longi tudinal channels vary in size, have thick walls, and are arranged in quadrants. They arc centrally situated and covered by many layers of cells. In the rachis, the channels are more deeply placed peripherally and tend to scatter towards the circumference as the s tem is approached.

There does not seem to be any marked change in the size of the canals. In the stern the number of conductive systems increases markedly with a concomitant enlargement. Also, they lie nearer the surface and there are fewer layers of cells covering them. The d ifference in size of the channels may bear some significant relation to the electrical records if it should appear that the conducting canals are involved in the propagation of the stimulus.

The study here reported suggests that with Mimosa-as in the nervous system of animals-the rate of conduction of impulse is a function of the diameter of the channel.

But this particular aspect of the problem needs to be investigated further. The interesting thing about all these results to date makes it dear that the electrical properties of a living system are directly to be correlated with the genetic constitution of a living system, on the one hand, and on the other hand are modified by changes in the physical or chemical.

The alteration, however, is not in pattern but in the magnitude of the typical response. We had also found fields in simpler forms of life-animals, eggs, seeds and plants.

So it seemed desirable to extend our hunt for fields to the simplest living organization, protoplasm. This was important, not only to m ake sure that everything that is alive possesses a field bu t also because protoplasm is the basic, formative material of animal forms. Wha tever may trigger, too, the nervous system, a basic requirement is the energy made available by the incredibly-complex chemical flux of protoplasm. This is a common mould which grows readily in the lahoratory and exhibits characteristic patterns of growth and of fruiting.

Also, its protoplasm is in constant movement, oscillating from one end of the system to the other. Since the material grows readily in quite adequate quantities, it makes an ideal elementary protoplasmic system for a further study of the electro-metric properties. There were three primary objectives of this study : The first was to determine whether or not, in the living plasmodium, in constan t movement, there exists an electrical correlate of this movement.

Secondly, after the results of the Mimosa experiment, it was interesting to examine the possibility of an electro-metric response in the protoplasm to a variety of external stimuli, both chemical and physical.

Finally, a third possibility was to examine the changes which might be found in the plasmodium when an external field was applied to it. There is plenty of evidence in the literature to show that changes in the electrical environment of protoplasm do produce observable effects on the protoplasm itself. Using silver-silver chloride electrodes, a high input impedance amplifier and a recording galvanometer, many records were taken of the changing potential in a strand, or vein, of the plasmodium during the movement of the protoplasmic system itself.

In the laboratory, using moving picture records and electro-metrics, the pulsating character of the growth of the slime mould was studied. Under the microscope, it is simple to demonstrate that every sixty or ninety seconds the protoplasm in the veins reverses the direction of flow. This, undoubtedly, needs further study. It is highly important, of course, to determine whether or not the change in potential is the result of the protoplasmic flow or the reverse of this.

Undoubtedly, this is involved in the growth of the whole system and is concerned, apparently, in part, with the search of the plasmodium for energy sources or food. The rate at which the protoplasm moves undoubtedly is a function, to some extent, of temperatures in the environment. Although there are no exact records of these relationships, the fact remains that lowering the temperature does tend to slow up the flow of protoplasm. There has not yet been observed, however, any lack of electrical correlates when protoplasm itself is moving.

That changes in the electrical environment have an effect upon the electrical properties of protoplasm, is well known from the studies of Lund and his associates, and more recently by Anderson.

The direction in which the plasmodium grows, moreover, can be altered by, again, imposing an external electrical field on the primitive protoplasm. In every instance, the growing plasmodium could be made to turn towards the negative side of an imposed electrical environment. Here, again, it was demonstrated that any change in the physical environment of primitive protoplasm results in an adeq uate stimulus to the protoplasm itself.

Unlike the nervous system, however, there seemed to be a fairly close correlation between the strength of the tap and the electro-metric response of the protoplasm. A weak tap produced a relatively small change in voltage gradient, whereas a heavier one increased the magnitude of the electrical response. There was, however, obviously, a plateau of the response beyond which the protoplasm showed no further increase in voltage output. This, of course, is unlike the all-or-none phenomena to he found in neural protoplasm.

Records of this sort reinforce the concep t that one of the simpler forms of protoplasm exhibits properties very like that to be found in the nervous system. This might be suspected, of course, since both neurones and the slime mould are built of the same basic stuff, protoplasm.

No less important are changes in the chemical environment. It should be noted that the vein hangs s uspended i n the air over a moist chamber and the pro cain can be ei ther adsorbed to the s urface of the protoplasm or pass through the phase boundary i n to the protoplasm itself.

In general, the similarity in electrical response of the slime mould to changes in the physical and chemical environmen t shows a remarkable similarity to the properties of neural tissue. But our adventure was to lead us to still further discoveries.

We assumed, then, that variations in the subsidiary fields would be reflected in variations in the flow of energy in the whole system-as we had found in ovulation and malignancy. We decided, therefore, to look for further practical consequences of the theory. Working with Dr. Samuel Harvey and Dr. Max Taffe! With the coopera tion of Dr. Grennel, we made a special study of so-called surface potentials and peripheral nerve injury. These tests are simple enough for routine clinical application.

However, the sympathectomies were all pre-ganglionic and hence further work must be done in order to clarify the matter. It has been found tha t rapidly shutting off the blood-flow in the forearm and hand by means of a blood pressure cuff on the arm , as well as a sudden return of flow on releasing the cup, does not significantly alter the potential difference. In other words, altering the normal functioning of the vascular bed does not affect the standing potential. In the light of these findings it would seem unlikely that the sympathetic nervous system is the mediating factor.

Nevertheless, the data show tha t in unila teral sympathectomy there is a d ifference in the standing potential on the operated and unoperated sides. These ventures into the unknown of the electro-metrics of liv ing organisms were often prompted by a search for answers to practical questions. An example of this are the electro-m etrics of wound healing. The late Dr. This inCTcase varies, for the most part, during the first eight or ten days following the incision.

This tends to be modified in vitamin C deficient animals. But the increase of tensile strength must involve at least two processes : one of cell proliferation and one of cell differentiation. In normal development, the two events do not occur in the same cell simultaneously.

Each cell takes part in the generalized mitosis of a group of cells-probably fibroblasts-for a period of time, after which , with other cells, i t undergoes a period o f differentiation. As growth proceeds, new cells go into mi tosis and then in to differentiation adding thereby to the new structure.

The experimental animals used for the laboratory were guinea pigs, one group of which were fed a con trolled diet. Another group were fed a form of laboratory diet.

In both sets of studies an area of skin was bared and measurem ents taken between the cephalic end of the bare area, and another at the caudal end of the area. Wherever incision was to be made between the two, a control point was taken. After the preliminary measurements were mad,:, the skin and subcutaneous fascia were incised and suturerJ, following which another set of examinations were made. These were continued daily for the next two weeks or until the wound was healed. These timeless principles based on laws of physics are revealing to us why we die and how biological immortality will soon be an absolute reality in our lives.

These timeless principles based on laws of physics are revealing to us why and how we can have be, and do whatsoever we desire! Each of these theories supports the idea that the electromagnetic field itself is the basis of consciousness and that this source of consciousness peers out into the space-time universe through our human sensory systems, flowing with awareness throughout the bloodstream and nervous system.

Following her exploration of electromagnetic-consciousness theories, Joye then examines practical applications, describing how electric fields might be manipulated and controlled to modify and enhance the operation of consciousness in the human brain. She explores the use of contemporary brain stimulation devices that offer benefits such as decreased addiction cravings and anxiety, reduced depression and chronic pain, enhanced mathematical abilities, accelerated learning, and greater insight during mindfulness meditation.

Revealing the cutting edge of consciousness studies, Joye shows that consciousness is not an isolated function of the individual brain but is connected to the larger electromagnetic field that not only encompasses the entire physical universe but also is deeply involved in the creation of matter and the material world.

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Initially reviewed in May ; subsequently updated and posted in December Burr was a keen amateur painter of waterscapes and landscapes.

And if the filings are thrown away and fresh ones scattered on the card, the new filings will assume the same pattern as the old. Burr granted that chemistry is itself of great importance, similar to how the chemical properties of gasoline make a machine work. Ravitz found that they could establish baseline voltage gradient measurements for individuals who had normal mental functioning.

We assumed, then, that variations in the subsidiary fields would be reflected immlrtality variations in the flow of energy in the whole system — as we had found in ovulation and malignancy. Burr was able to measure the changes taking place in the L-field as wounds would be healing. Ravitz has written that ovulation, illness, cuts and scratches can affect readings of the L-field.

During all phases of the healing process, gradient measurements could be made to show the body initiating various functions pertaining to wound healing. Harold Saxton Burr, Ph. Duke marked it as to-read Jun saxyon, This page was last edited on 5 Julyat Who is going on with Burr studies??

Even today the results bluepriint his research could be utilized in numerous ways which would help toward greater health for humanity. Burr was E.